***********************************************
WORLDWIDE
FOREST/BIODIVERSITY CAMPAIGN NEWS
Using
Informational Technologies for Forest Advocacy
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Forest
Networking a Project of Ecological Enterprises
March
26, 1996
SOURCE
& OVERVIEW
Here is
an article that I wrote for Rainforest Information
Centre's
just released World Rainforest Report.
The article
details
how computer based informational technologies can
be used
to their greatest advantage in the struggle against
ecological
impoverishment. The whole RIC WRR,
February, 1996
edition
can be found at RIC's new homepage:
http://www.peg.apc.org/~ricwww/wwrr33/index.html
Glen
Barry
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RELAYED
TEXT STARTS HERE:
Your
Green Computer
Using
Informational Technologies for Forest Advocacy with an
Emphasis
on Papua New Guinea's Rainforest
Computers
are a powerful tool for the dissemination of
information. Using his work on PNG forest issues as an
example,
Glen
Barry shows how computer based informational technologies can
be used
to their greatest advantage in the struggle against
ecological
impoverishment.
by Glen
Barry
1.
Introduction
Significant
consensus has emerged concerning the threats facing
the
planet's biological diversity and biological health.
Scientists,
activists and government officials increasingly are
united
in their conviction that humankind's unrestrained
industrial
activities in general, and the widespread and
accelerating
decline of forests in particular, are degrading the
biosphere.
Less progress has been made in communicating to the
general
public the consequences of the rapid impoverishment of
biological
systems we are now experiencing. This is particularly
true in
Papua New Guinea (PNG) and other Pacific island countries.
The question is, will the signal of green
thought prevail in
time to
make ecological living the norm? How can technology be
used to
achieve the ends of maintaining biodiversity? This paper
is
meant to enable others with an interest in PNG, the Pacific
region,
and/or forests in general, to understand the potential for
informational
campaigning, utilizing a whole range of startlingly
powerful
information technologies, like relational databases, the
internet
and many other PC-based tools.
The
creation of networks through which information flows on
specific
ecological issues is one way that individuals can make a
difference.
And in my opinion; gathering, networking and collating
of environmental
information which we have carried out on behalf
of
PNG's forests could be replicated with great benefit in most
places,
and for most environmental and other progressive causes.
Pick a
forest and save it.
Over
the past several years, I have carried out research on forest
informational
campaign strategies; with particular attention to
how to
use databases, the internet, and desktop publishing for the
conservation
and management of PNG's rainforests and biodiversity.
This
forest advocacy research, largely carried out under the
organisational
name Ecological Enterprises, has been action
oriented;
building information links and educational opportunities
for
biodiversity and rainforest protection, within PNG, and
between
PNG and the rest of the world.
Salzman
(1989) considers focused advocacy to be a person (or
group)
reporting data concerning an area in which they have
expertise
and deeply held convictions. This leads
to action to
make
sure the information is interpreted correctly and acted upon
(Rohlf
1991). Salzman adds, that it is entirely appropriate--and
crucial--for
scientists to become focused advocates.
This
message
is important for PNG rainforest advocacy efforts.
Ecological
Enterprises has become a leading information center for
the
processing of information of and about PNG's and the World's
forests,
biodiversity and indigenous cultures. Our advocacy
campaign's
basic premise is that ecological and biological
considerations
need to be inserted into virtually all resource use
decisions,
forestry in particular, if human society is to have a
chance
to stop the reduction in biological functionality of the
world's
ecological systems.
I will
not attempt to address at length the debate concerning
whether
conservation should or should not use modern technology
for
advocacy or other uses. Significant adverse ecological impact
of just
the resources needed to build computers and supply them
are
noted. Nonetheless, I am of the opinion that conservationists
have no
option but to embrace informational technologies at this
critical
juncture. Computers as a tool, not as an end unto
themselves,
must be the focus.
2.
PNG's Biological Significance and Conservation Potential
PNG's
tropical forests and freshwater wetlands are equal in
biological
importance to the Amazon and Congo Basins (Alcorn
1993).
Forest resources play a vital role in sustaining the
livelihood
of its 3.7 million people. PNG covers
46.3 million
hectares,
of which about 34.23 million ha are still covered by
closed
natural forest and about half of which are accessible for
exploitation
(Lamb 990).
PNG is
in a unique position to defend its rainforests. Over 97% of
the
land remains under customary land ownership. PNG law protects
the
rights of indigenous landowners to decide land use. Many PNG
NGOs
and others, Ecological Enterprises included, have carried out
extensive
grassroots educational efforts which have brought the
well-documented
social and environmental costs of industrial
logging
to numerous village communities. Out of such awareness,
both at
the village level in PNG, and with many hundreds of people
on the
internet, inevitably comes discussion of what development
options
there are that don't inherently diminish biological and
cultural
richness.
2.1
Ecological Alternatives Exist--Forest Loss Doesn't Have to
Happen
The
indigenous peoples of PNG desperately desire to better their
economic
and material condition. Conservation in PNG will fail
unless
the reasonable development aspirations of the local people
are
addressed. Capitalizing on the customary land ownership, PNG
has
tremendous potential for the promotion of land use patterns
that
stress long term stewardship as a means of meeting these
aspirations.
A
promising eco-timber industry is being developed in PNG. As an
alternative
to industrial forestry which degrades the resource
upon
which economic livelihoods depend, support of small-scale,
community
based, ecologically sustainable forestry and other low
impact
forest utilization may be the most effective manner to
conserve
biological diversity and economic futures in PNG. NGOs
and
landowners are joining together as practitioners of
eco-forestry
(small, community based sawmilling under a strict
forest
management plan) using 'wokabaut somils', small portable
sawmills.
The light, portable sawmill can be carried into the
forests.
When a
tree is to be harvested, it is felled with minimal
disturbance
to the surrounding trees and then milled on the spot.
No
roads and no heavy equipment are needed. Only some of the trees
over a
certain girth are harvested. PNG can
probably never have
enough
preserved land in properly distributed reserves to maintain
viable
populations of most endemic species. PNG's rugged geography
has
resulted in a vast number of microhabitats. The result was a
radiation
in species and cultural diversity in each isolated
valley.
When vast tracts of relatively unpopulated forest
landscape
currently exist, why presume that 90% must still be
cleared
to arrive at what will then be preserved? Doesn't the
failure
of large scale industrial forestry to bring long term
improvement
in local people's way of life, while decimating local
biodiversity,
beg for a more farsighted development strategy?
While
the goal of establishing National Parks and other preserves
is
laudable, viable management systems for natural forests must be
found.
2.2
Wokabout Sawmills
Wokabout
Sawmills and other small, portable mills are among the
best
tools in the world for sensitive harvesting of trees (Seed
1993). They cause less environmental destruction
than multi-
national
loggers and ensure local people get better financial
benefits.
Seed (1993) estimates that a maximum of 200 new wokabaut
somil
operations would need to be established to exclude large
scale
industrial logging from all vulnerable areas of PNG.
Ecoforestry
efforts using portable sawmills will only be as
successful
as their management plans are scientifically rigorous.
These
management plans generally allow careful logging on 1000
acres
(about 20 acres a year over a 50-year rotation) leaving the
vast
majority of the land untouched. Once the tree is felled, the
sawmill
is assembled over the trunk, and the tree sawn into
planks.
The small clearing is rehabilitated and seedlings of the
species
taken are planted. Future timber trees are identified,
staked,
and mulched with sawdust. The number of cut trees per
hectare
is strictly limited, so there will be little more damage
than
would occur naturally and be repaired through gap dynamics
(Seed
1994). There is a pressing need to experiment with
regeneration
in a variety of alternate management plans with
varying
harvest intensities, gap sizes, and levels of
mechanization.
3. The Forest Networking Project - History
and Methodology
We have
detailed the extensive forest clearing occurring across
Irian
Jaya, Indonesia, PNG, and the Solomon Islands. Recent
advances
in ecotimber harvesting schemes have also been noted. The
problem
and solution have been identified.
The
internet and other technologies offer great potential to
communicate
internationally and locally, to bring about a solution
to this
decline in ecosystem functionality. Ecological
Enterprises'
Internet Forest Networking Project has been actively
organizing
individuals and communities for six years, with email
bulletins
posted to conservationists, government employees,
academics
-- getting ecological facts and figures into the hands
of
people who are willing to make a difference.
Conservation
materials have also been widely distributed on APC's
networks
(greennet, pegasus, econet) and their rich
environmentally-orientated
bulletin boards. These efforts have
recently
intensified with the construction of Gaia Forest Archives
home
page accessible through the World Wide Web and gopher
systems.
In
order to address the clearly unacceptable destruction of the
vast
majority of South Pacific forest ecosystem, we have developed
informational
campaign strategies which seek to:
1.
Organize local forest conservation information in a systematic
manner
to serve the needs of community development and empowerment
work in
PNG in particular, and in a less detailed manner, the
world
at large. This involves the collection, selection,
compilation,
sorting and dissemination of information;
2. Act
as support and contact center for community actions and
campaigns;
3. Act
as intermediary for receiving and disseminating
information;
4.
Provide consultation and services to the community and
community-based
organizations in PNG in particular, and the world
in
general;
5.
Demonstrate to other environmental campaigners how information
technologies
can be used to network ecological information. The
internet
has provided the core tool, the development of cheap and
rapid
communication between forest peoples and those living in
Northern
countries. Such communication presents two obstacles,
technical
aspects and cultural differences.
The
author has maintained a steady stream of information out of
PNG to
the international conservation movement concerning forest
legislation,
policy, specific forest negotiations, and local
environmental
campaigns. As early as 1989, we were putting out
information
from PNG on the internet. At first this was utilized
primarily
for fund raising, group writing and campaign
coordination
of core PNG rainforest activists around the world.
Only
occasionally were items systematically addressed to the
larger
public.
Then in
1991, while volunteering with the Rainforest Information
Centre
in Australia as the New Guinea Islands Campaign Director, I
began
to type in PNG conservation newspaper articles, NGO
informational
releases, and other items for a small private
conference
that was once again addressed primarily to a small
group
of dedicated activists. This was largely because at this
time it
was unclear whether this type of material was too radical
for
mainstream viewing; and because expensive gateways charges
apply
when econet emails are sent to people on other email
networks.
Econet
is part of the APC networks, the largest assembly of
on-line
environmental information and activists, which connects
17,000
activists in 94 countries. For further
information on
EcoNet
membership, a nonprofit online system, send a message to
<ECONET-INFO@igc.apc.org>.
Econet has a tremendous number of
environmentally
orientated computer conferences where participants
'post'
items, which are then available for others to read when
they
log in, allowing conversations that are lively, global, and
immediate.
Dozens of conferences on the internet deal with
environment
and development topics (Brown 1994). ;
As the
private conference png.campaign within the econet
conference
continued to grow, it soon became clear that any
advantages
to a "private" bulletin board
were being lost as
individuals
whom the core campaigners did not know personally,
scattered
throughout the globe, were added to the permissions
list.
At this time the content of our postings changed from
primarily
campaign coordination to the presentation of materials
that
would broaden and deepen the movement. Rather than thinking
that
half a dozen extremely dedicated individuals were going to
save
the forests single-handedly, additional emphasis was placed
on
interesting and recruiting new activists.
Since
late 1991, basically all materials that have run in the PNG
print
media concerning rainforest conservation efforts have been
made
digital and indexed. In 1993 we acquired a piece of hardware
called
a scanner and a class of computer software known as Object
Character
Recognition (OCR) which allows clear hard copies to have
their
text moved directly into a word processor where it can then
be
edited, put in a newsletter, or printed.
It can also be posted
to
email list subscribers and to the econet conference
reg.newguinea.
In mid
1993 we started getting more familiar with the internet, of
which
econet is but one domain; and realized that anyone without a
paid
membership in econet was not getting our information.
4.
Current Informational Campaigns
These
early internet forest conservation efforts have continued,
and
branched out to become involved in the conservation struggles
of
various communities whose internet appeals are being collected
from
numerous sources for indexing, distribution and archiving. As
well as
econet's bulletin boards, many usenet conferences, list
server
discussions, and World Wide Web and Gopher databases all
are
inputs into what we eventually circulate and archive.
Ensuring
local struggles' conservation data is collated and
distributed
widely is crucial at this junction as pro-industrial
logging
governments and businesses have increased their propaganda
machines
worldwide (with their relatively unlimited resources) to
counter
and try to discredit the support of the global community
for
indigenous people's struggles.
E-mail
is a way by which messages can be sent from one computer to
another
anywhere in the world through telephone lines. It is
cheaper
than phone or fax and correspondences can be captured onto
the
computer which greatly facilitates networking and the
distribution.
Email has allowed cheap and rapid communication
between
forest peoples and those living in Northern countries.
As
Brown (1994) points out,
"electronic mail has become a vital
tool
for those who work on environmental and social issues.
Thousands
of activists and organizations around the world are now
using
computer networks to coordinate campaigns and exchange
news."
Generally, document downloads of 250kb a day --about 200
articles
-- are sifted through in order to find the 4 or 5 items a
day
which not only report events, but contain information which
would
be useful for others wanting to become active in support of
good
forest policy in a particular area. About 3 items a week are
sent to
the Worldwide Forest/Biodiversity Campaign News email
list,
really the best of the crop. About
another two dozen a week
are
uniformly formatted and put in our document database in the
Gaia
Forest Archives, where any individual with internet (gopher
or
World Wide Web) connection can access and search them.
The
other type of information we frequently network is reports,
documents,
manuscripts from organizations and individuals. For
these
items, we have been granted permission to network by the
authors
and issuing organization. There are
many dozens of groups
and
individuals that regularly gather and send us press releases,
action
alerts and various other information pieces.
Most of the
information
in the PNG section has been made available
electronically
for the first time by our efforts.
4.1 PNG Rainforest Campaign News
Our
"PNG Rainforest Campaign News," which now reaches
approximately
300 activists, academics and government officials,
provides
very comprehensive coverage of efforts to conserve PNG's
rainforests,
approximately 2 items a week (send an email to
gbarry@forests.org
to be added).
The PNG
Rainforest Campaign contact database organizes information
for
over 1,000 international supporters interested in PNG
rainforest
protection; and for whom we research, write and
circulate
a significant amount of information current, activist
oriented
forest conservation information. We network PNG
newspapers'
coverage of forest issues, local NGO backgrounders and
materials,
and international NGO PNG rainforest information.
In
addition, Ecological Enterprises typically writes a few press
releases
and action alerts a month; pulling together recent
happenings
from our other sources, and channelling public concern
within
PNG and the World to pressure for conservation action.
Frequently
we organize international actions, such as letter
writing
campaigns, in support of local conservation appeals. Many
hundreds
of environmental groups and individuals, including most
major
forest campaign organizations, depend upon Ecological
Enterprises
for a portion of their forest conservation
information. National Geographic Magazine , the New York Times,
EF!
Journal , Rainforest Information Centre's World Rainforest
Report (many times - ed.) and Rainforest Action
Network's World
Rainforest
Report and numerous newspapers around the world
(including
many in PNG) have recently utilized our data and
analysis
for articles on the forest situation in PNG.
What is
original here, is that 500 people in communities all over
the
world are finding out about conservation issues days or weeks
after
it is happening (where it used to be months or years -- if
ever).
4.2
Worldwide Forest/Biodiversity Campaign News
Our PNG
Rainforest conservation network lead us to spend much time
on the
internet, posting and viewing many forest forums. We soon
came to
realize that a tremendous amount of worldwide conservation
material
was languishing on infrequently visited bulletin boards.
We
decided to diversify from our PNG interests and establish a
network
of activists, academics and public servants interested in
biodiversity
and forests issues in general. Hence, the
"Worldwide
Forest/Biodiversity
Campaign News" was hatched; as we began to
amplify
the best of forest conservation appeals.
Worldwide
Forest/Biodiversity Campaign News scans numerous sources
on the
internet, including usenet discussion groups, econet's
bulletin
boards, popular media and the press, and list servers and
other
local forest conservation efforts similar to our PNG
Campaign,
to provide wide-ranging coverage, on average 3 items a
week,
of the efforts to save the world's rainforests, temperate
forests,
biodiversity and indigenous cultures. This list is
currently
being distributed to 500+ academics and activists around
the
world.
Recently,
we have been following conservation efforts in Malaysia
(Sarawak),
British Columbia (Clayoquot Sound), Guyana, and
numerous
others ( send an email to gbarry@forests.org to
join).
We have been providing coverage on biodiversity decline
across
the globe, amplifying local efforts to address the
situation.
We are synthesizing down the networked information by
individuals
and groups in order to maximize busy conservationists
information
inflows. We synthesize out the few conservation gems
which
are being circulated from the "noise" in many conservation
forums,
serving the function of a filter.
Not
every individual concerned about forest conservation issues is
able to
spend 3-4 hours a day surfing the net finding materials,
and
another 1-2 hours a day preparing them for distribution, and
another
1-2 hours in system design (most lately setting up the
archives,
but many years of designing the mailing list format,
adding
people, etc.). Much thought has been put into the format
and
frequency of postings. Through repeated changes we have
decided
that titles that capture the essence of the piece and well
written
summaries before the whole item's text are crucial in
allowing
list recipients to quickly gauge what items are of
interest.
4.3
Gaia1 Forest Archives
In
addition to these two email lists, archives of materials,
constituting
thousands of informational pieces, have been made
available
on the internet through the establishment of the Gaia1
internet
server. The archives, entitled the Gaia Forest Archives
(check
it out at URL =
http://forests.lic.wisc.edu/forests/gaia.html),
provide a range of
materials
concerning rainforest and biodiversity.
Materials
have been made of uniform format, titled, indexed and
presented
graphically in order to make this material available to
individuals
that want to become more active in the rainforest
movement;
and need to familiarize themselves with forest and
biodiversity
protection issues in a particular country.
Data
logs of the number of people accessing the informational
archives
have been gathered since its establishment. This data
shows
that as the information becomes more known and linked, and
thus
accessible, that information utilization is increasing
dramatically.
In just over 6 weeks, we went from having no
accesses
to one hundred a day. Potentially, our ability to
influence
the worldwide system upscale has increased dramatically,
as
recent weeks have seen a dramatic increase in the numbers of
people
viewing these materials. The home page
has been hit now
some
25,000 times over an 8 month period, during which time 70,000
documents
were downloaded.
5.
Information - A Systems Perspective
Given
the systems nature of society and the ideas which are put
before
the public, the degree to which this forest advocacy
program
is successful will depend on whether accurate, well
targeted
information flows percolate through the system; ideally
becoming
the dominant paradigm, and leading to more actual
conservation,
ecological management and restoration of forests
where
they have historically occurred.
The
discipline of Conservation Biology pays insufficient attention
to the
need to better identify sociologically, politically,
economically
and ecologically how the the drastic lifestyle
changes
necessary to pull human society into sustainability can be
attained.
Continued presence of forested landscapes through
preservation
of all remaining primary forest and immediate
attempts
to restore forest cover where it has historically
occurred
is essential to insure that the ecological roles of
forests
and their biological diversity remains intact.
The
Forest Networking project works primarily at the Worldwide
scale,
hierarchically, as only the internet can make possible;
with a
nested PNG informational campaign at a lower scale.
Increasingly,
we are seeing many other local groups spring up to
gather
and network conservation information on a particular
country
or forest. International support is crucial if PNG's, and
these
other conservation efforts, are to have a chance of success.
Modern
computers allow the tremendous ability to send thousands of
messages
to every corner of the world. Many newbies, or people
recently
experimenting with the internet, respond to such power
through
indiscriminate sending of information, but just being able
to send
signals faster and in more quantity does not make for a
more
connected system. Information must be going to people who are
willing
and able to make a conservation statement through their
actions.
If the
goal of this forest awareness is to have the forest land
conservation
ethos become the norm (the dominant paradigm),
critical
system connections need to be identified and linked. We
have
begun to address the lack of dispersal of information
pertaining
to local forest conservation efforts through the
filtering,
targeting and distribution of vast quantities of forest
and
biodiversity conservation advocacy materials. We have done
this
without ever flooding anonymous people with information.
Instead,
we started small and identified people who wanted the
information.
Both lists average half a dozen new subscribers a
week. "Both the number of host computers and
the volume of
information
flowing through the system are estimated to be
doubling
every five months (Brown, 1994)". Many types of
individuals
receive these unabashedly activist writs every week.
Virtually
all major forest campaign groups worldwide, the foreign
service
desk officer for PNG from the US and Australia, the head
of
FAO's forest branch, World Bank, State Department officials,
numerous
academics (particularly a substantial anthropologist
network)
-- all are receiving and acting upon our information.
We have
seen numerous interesting feedbacks as a result. As the
forest
and biodiversity advocacy has progressed, numerous
feedbacks
and patterns of information flows and impact have been
developing.
We also show how the individual, and small groups, can
have a
huge impact. Such an individual can be viewed as a
transmitting
holon in a systems biology sense. New information
technologies
allow a well informed individual the ability to
package
and disseminate information, that is send signals to other
parts
of the worldwide system, in previously unimagined quantity,
speed,
targeted accuracy, and quality. We can continue this
systems
analogy by envisioning information flows through the world
as
being received by individuals which are receiving holons.
Successful
advocacy depends upon identifying from the whole set of
holons
(the world's population) the subset that is concerned
enough
with these issues (or likely to become so if provided with
the
necessary information) that they are willing to become
transmitting
holons; or otherwise active conservationists. And
further,
targeted receiving holons should be in a position to make
a
difference. Success is measured by the extent to which forest
conservation
percolates through the total human controlled system;
a
component of the larger system, Gaia, and becomes the prevalent
ethos. Many biological systems depend upon
informational signals,
be they
chemical or ecological, to remain intact.
6. The
Mechanics of the Forest Networking Campaign
Having
experimented with rainforests appeals and informational
exchange
via the internet for some time, we have slowly, and
through
trial and error, identified key concepts that are
important
for our methodology and that are communicated to
recipients
of our forest alerts. It is critical the essential user
understandings
be established immediately with the hundreds of
people
who allow their mailboxes to be flooded with email appeals.
This
informational service is free. All we ask of list recipients
is that
they try to contribute an item or two to the list when
possible.
Recipients can send items through email to us to be
distributed,
or you can send a high quality hard copy to us to
scan
into digital format. We network numerous public domain items,
which
we scan in from hardcopy and/or find posted around the
internet.
These include newspapers, magazines and other public
domain
sources. These items, we stress, are to be viewed as
photocopies.
Recipients are encouraged to use them as a resource
in
their own work, be it academic or activist, keeping in mind we
are
just passing items along as is--we are "amplifying" these
stories,
and thus acting as a messenger. If you want to actually
publish
the item, in contrast to our photocopying, recipients need
to
approach the source listed for permission.
This is
all put forth in an email sent to new list recipients, and
in the
disclaimer accompanying each item. We are not doing this
for
profit or commercial reasons, but rather out of a deep love
for all
natural things and distress over the vast destruction
being
wrought on rainforests, biodiversity and indigenous cultures
in PNG
and other tropical and temperate forested areas. We are
bearing
witness to what is happening to biodiversity worldwide.
Once
the recipients of the list receive the information, they must
decide
what to do once they have become aware--hopefully deciding
to act
upon their knowledge, and take responsibility for doing so.
During
my tenure with the Institute for Environmental Studies'
computer
lab, I was instrumental in the actual design, and
configuration
of this Gaia1 server. In addition to basic UNIX
installation,
this included gathering different modules which
provide
different internet server functionality. We had to install
Gopher
software, World Wide Web software, and Swish Indexing
software
to provide the core functionality of these hybrid
gopher/WWW
indexed databases of forest conservation documents.
By far
the easiest way to get a WWW page up is having an in at a
University
which has the big, fast links to the internet to serve
all the
hits that will come in. WWW documents are in hypertext,
which
is really just a very simplified wordprocessing sort of
language
with simple control characters (remember wordstar?).
There
are a number of $10 books with simple style suggestions (ie
how to
boldface, etc.).
There
seem to be two approaches to getting a web site going; one
is to
make it really flashy but little substance, and the other is
to
first work on having something of worth when people stumble in.
I chose
the latter and only recently have added the flash. The
page
should load quickly (not be too big).
There
are starting to be a vast number of choices for people to
commercially
subscribe to internet services. The big ones in the
US, such
as Compuserve and America online are now offering
internet
connectivity. Most people can get lots of internet time
for say
$20 a month. Increasingly commercial providers for making
your
own web page available on the internet are springing up.
Then all
that is necessary to get your message across is writing
the
hypertext documents in a wordprocessor.
7.
Conclusion
PNG's
forests, as an intact landscape bound by evolutionary
history
and ecological singularity, will be gone within ten years
if
current logging continues. In 1993, log export levels increased
by four
times in a single year (Henderson 1993) and more recent
import
figures ( Saturday Independent 1995) show logging appears
to have
slowed its rate of growth, but is still growing while
being
well above the generally accepted sustainable yields.
Conservation
needs to occur now, or we will lose this startling
display
of evolutionary diversification forever.
Inserting
what we already know about ecology and biological
diversity
into land use decisions is essential if a transition to
sustainable
livelihoods is to occur in PNG, and also in the
already
overdeveloped world.
References
Alcorn,
Janis B. 1993. PNG Conservation Needs Assessment. The
Biodiversity
Support Program, Washington, D.C.
Aplet,
Gregory H.; Johnson, Nels; Olson, Jeffrey T., and Sample,
V.
Alaric (eds.) 1993. Defining Sustainable Forestry. Island
Press,
Washington, D. C.
Brown,
Lester. (ed.) 1994. State of the World. Chapter 6, Using
Computers
for the Environment. W. W. Norton & Company, New
York.
Grumbine,
R. Edward. 1994. What is Ecosystem Management?
Conservation
Biology. 8(1): 27-38.
Hartshorn,
Gary S. 1990. An Overview of Neotropical Forest
Dynamics.
Four Neotropical Rainforests. Yale University Press, New
Haven
and London: 585-599.
Henderson,
Max. 1993. Ol Draipela Diwai I Lus Pinis. PNG NGO
report.
Lamb,
D. 1977. "Conservation and Management of Tropical
Rainforest:
A Dilemma of Development in PNG," Environmental
Conservation
4 (2).
Leslie,
A.J. 1977. Where contradictory theory and practice
coexist.
Unasylva 29: 2-17.
Primack,
Richard B. 1993. Essentials of Conservation Biology.
Sinauer
Associates, Sunderland, Massachusett.
Mabberley,
D.J. 1992. Tropical Rain Forest Ecology. Chapman &
Hall,
New York.
Rohlf,
Danial J. 1991. Six Biological Reasons Why the Endangered
Species
Act Doesn't Work--And What to Do About It. Conservation
Biology
5(3): 273-282.
Salzman,
J.E. 1989. Scientists as advocates: the Point Reyes Bird
Observatory
and gill netting in central California. Conservation
Biology
3(2):170-180.
Seed,
John. 1990-95. Personal communications, emails.
Wilson,
E.O.1988. Biodiversity. National Academy Press,
Washington,D.C
Wilson,
E.O.1992. The Diversity of Life. The Belknap Press,
Cambridge,
MA.
###RELAYED
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